Dorota Suwalska-Barancewicz Dispositional life optimism and its significance for personal resilience and life satisfaction among young mothers

Artykuł jest dostępny na warunkach międzynarodowej licencji 4.0 (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

Introduction

Motherhood, especially amid contemporary societal changes, remains a topic of significant interest across numerous academic fields, including psychology. Topics of particular interest include women’s experience of motherhood, the ambiguity in defining the concept of a “good mother,” how modern women perceive motherhood, and the challenges they face in fulfilling maternal roles (Celińska-Miszczuk; Wiśniewska, 2017).

The challenges faced by modern mothers make the motherhood in the 21st century more difficult in comparison with the motherhood of the previous generation (Deręgowska, Majorczyk, 2012; Molenda, 2016; Celińska-Miszczuk, Wiśniewska, 2017). In addition to the need to balance both family and professional roles, today's mothers face the difficulty and stress of having to project an image of excellence in both their maternal and professional responsibilities, while also being accountable for the comprehensive, high-standard development of their child. The image of perfect, idealised motherhood adversely affects women's mental health – it lowers self-esteem and self-efficacy, and increases levels of stress, anxiety and guilt, and also results in a reduced sense of personal effectiveness (Henderson, Harmon, Newman, 2016).

Motherhood can provide women with many positive but also negative experiences (Koronkiewicz, 2014). Motherhood can indeed be considered a source of self-fulfilment, strength, maturity or personal development (Włodarczyk, 2012), but it can also be seen as a challenging experience, a burden, a source of tension and frustration (Brannon, 2002). The myth of an ideal mother and the pressure to identify with this message negatively affects women's life satisfaction and mental health.

A factor often associated in the literature with the ability to cope in difficult situations is dispositional optimism. As a personality trait, it represents the expression of an individual's generalised expectation of a positive outcome from their actions. It enhances resistance to stressors and moderates situational evaluations (Carver, Scheier, 1994). Research indicates that a high level of optimism is associated with better coping in difficult life situations (Carver, Scheier, 2010; Prati, Pietrantoni, 2009), influences physical health, well-being, life success and resilience to stressful life events (Carver, Scheier, 2003).

Research on optimism also indicates its invaluable role in creating satisfying social relationships. Optimism encourages caregiving behaviours, adopting the perspective of another person, and perceiving greater support in close relationships, which in turn aids in coping with stress (Srivastava, Angelo, 2009). Optimistic individuals tend to handle conflicts in relationships more constructively, and their optimism is associated with a lower likelihood of breakups or divorce by increasing relationship satisfaction (Srivasteva, Angelo, 2009). The literature also provides data indicating that optimists experience significantly more positive emotions than pessimists, and are more creative and open to change. They are more eager to undergo new experiences and they adapt to them better (Isen, 2004). People with a positive attitude towards the future are happier, satisfied with themselves and their lives, and show fewer symptoms of depression (Czapiński, 2005). A positive orientation is associated with the perceived quality of interpersonal relationships and with perceived support (Caprara et al., 2010). Optimism effectively influences the ability to express emotions, preventing the emergence of emotional tension, which is the basis of many illnesses, as well as professional burnout (Czerw, 2009; Seligman, 2005; Seligman, 2003). The significance of optimism is invaluable in shaping positive family relationships (Modzelewski, 2016).

A resource of the individual that also holds significant importance for the ability to cope with difficult and stressful situations is psychological resilience, understood as a synonym for life resourcefulness. It is one of the important factors that assist a person in dealing with difficulties (Pooley, Cohen, Connor, 2010). Many studies show the importance of resilience in choosing constructive coping strategies. Resilience encourages adaptive strategies and reduces the propensity to use non-adaptive strategies. Individuals characterised by resilience cope with stress more effectively, are more likely to experience positive affect (Tugade, Fredrickson, 2004), exhibit greater vitality, curiosity about the world and openness to new experiences, as well as higher levels of optimism and inner peace (Semmer, 2006).

People with a higher degree of resilience are more likely to engage in relationships with other people, including their immediate family (Connor, 2006). Research also indicates that resilience is crucial for the positive creation and maintenance of satisfactory social bonds (Heszen, Sęk, 2007; cf. Ogińska-Bulik, Juczyński, 2008). According to previous studies, resilience is also one of the factors influencing overall life satisfaction (Ogińska-Bulik, 2014). Individuals with a high level of resilience are more positively disposed towards life and are characterised by emotional stability, which undoubtedly helps to build constructive relationships with the surrounding people. Mental resilience is also a factor facilitating mobilisation in crisis situations, which, as mentioned earlier, can accompany young mothers in their parenting role. A high level of resilience also fosters tolerance of negative emotions and failures, which can protect women-mothers from a decline in satisfaction in crisis situations (Semmer, 2006).

In view of the difficulties experienced by contemporary mothers and the importance of the mother-child relationship for early childhood development, an analysis of the functioning of this group of women seems worthwhile.

Purpose of the study

The aim of the study was to analyse whether the level of life optimism is associated with personal resilience and life satisfaction among young mothers, as well as to determine whether it differentiates their levels of life satisfaction. The level of optimism among young mothers was considered as an intermediary factor between their resilience and life satisfaction. Conducting appropriate statistical analyses enabled conclusions to be drawn regarding determinants (predictors) of life satisfaction. Based on the literature, it was assumed that high levels of optimism and resilience contributed positively to life satisfaction.

Group characteristics

The study involved 328 women-mothers in early adulthood (average age 3.56; SD = 3.60), i.e. who became mothers for the first time between the ages of 20 and 39 years and had at least one child under 24 months of age (average age 15.39 months; SD = 9.95). For 63% of the surveyed mothers, it was their first child, for 31.07% their second, while for the remaining part of the surveyed women, i.e., 5.93%, it was their third child or more. The majority of the surveyed mothers had higher education (82.32%), 54 had secondary education (16.46%), while 4 women had primary education (1.22%). The vast majority of the surveyed mothers (67.68%) were from large cities (over 100,000 residents), 18.60% of the women lived in smaller towns, and the fewest group of 13.72% of the women resided in rural areas. Nearly 80% of the surveyed mothers were married (79.88%), single women accounted for 16.77% of the total respondents, and there were 11 divorced women (Table 1).

Table 1. Characteristics of study participants: frequency and percentage distribution of socio-demographic variables in the sample

Variable	Number	Percentage
Education
Vocational	4	1.22
Secondary	54	16.46
Higher	270	82.32
Place of residence
Village	45	13.72
Town up to 100,000 inhabitants	61	18.60
City from 100,000 to 500,000 inhabitants	108	32.92
City over 500,000 inhabitants	114	34.76
Marital status
Single	55	16 .77
Married	262	79 .88
Divorced	11	3.35
Relationship status
Dating multiple people	1	.30
In a committed relationship (dating one person)	2	.61
In a committed relationship and cohabiting	37	11.28
Engaged, but not cohabiting	1	.30
Engaged and cohabiting	24	7.32
Married	257	78.37
Separated but cohabiting with spouse	3	.91
Single	3	.91
Housing situation
Own home, only occupants	219	66 .78
Renting private accommodation	65	19.82
Living with my parents	23	7.01
Living with in-laws	10	3.05
Living with one of my parents	3	.91
Living with one of the in-laws	5	1.52
Living with my siblings or my partner’s siblings	3	.91

Source: own elaboration.

Variables tested and measurement procedure

For the purpose of this study, the following research variables were included.

Dependent variable

The dependent variable in this study was life satisfaction, understood as a subjective assessment of satisfaction with one's own life circumstances by comparing them to self-established standards. When this comparison yields a positive result, satisfaction is experienced. Life satisfaction was measured using the Satisfaction With Life Scale developed by Ed Diener and colleagues (1985; SWLS), as adapted into Polish by Zygfryd Juczyński (2009). This scale consists of five statements, which participants respond to by indicating the extent to which each statement applies to their life. Responses are given on a seven-point scale from 1 – “strongly disagree” to 7 – “strongly agree.” Scores range from 5 to 35 points, with higher scores indicating greater life satisfaction. The reliability of the method, determined using Cronbach alpha, is satisfactory and amounts to .81. The test-retest stability (stability over a six-week interval) is also satisfactory, with a coefficient of .86.

Independent variables

The independent variables in this study were life optimism and resilience.

To measure optimism, understood as a dispositional trait reflecting a general expectation of positive events, the Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) by Scheier and Carver (1985), in its Polish adaptation by Poprawa and Juczyński (2009), was used. The method includes 10 statements, of which 6 diagnose the level of dispositional optimism. The test score is the sum of responses to these 6 statements. Statements 1, 4 and 10 are positive, and statements 3, 7, and 9 are negative. Cronbach alpha for this scale is .76. The overall test score ranges from 0 to 24 points. The higher the score, the higher the level of optimism.

Resilience is conceptualised as a construct responsible for: “the potential to exhibit resourcefulness by using available internal and external recourses in response to different contextual and developmental challenges” (Pooley, Cohen, 2010, p. 34). The Lifespan Individual Resilience Scale(pl) (LIRS(pl)) is a self-report tool consisting of 12 statements assigned to three scales, corresponding to the three components of resilience – personal attributes (PA) (‘I achieve what I set out to do’), support from family (F)(‘My family gives me strength’) and from peers (P) (‘I have a strong bond with my friends’). The subject marks the answers to the statements on a 7-point scale (1– strongly disagree, 7– strongly agree). The tool produces an overall resilience result as well as a result for individual subscales. The reliability of the individual tool scales measured by the Cronbach alpha coefficient is satisfactory and for personal attributes was (.85), for family support (.93) and for peer support (.94).  The temporal stability, estimated using the Pearson correlation coefficient, based on two measurements obtained at an interval of 4 weeks, was as follows: personal attributes .84, family support .93, peer support .90 (Malina, Pooley, Harms, 2016).

Procedure

The survey was carried out on-line by sending out an access link to the electronic form to Internet users. The participants of the study included individuals who participated in closed groups devoted to parenting and parenthood. The online survey was conducted in accordance with the guidelines of the International Test Commission (ITC, 2005), taking into account familiarising respondents with the purpose, procedure and scope of the study, as well as ethical principles of safety and confidentiality of the collected results.

Study results

To verify the relationships between variables proposed in the research model, Pearson’s r correlation coefficient, regression analysis, Student’s t-test of differences and analysis of variance were used. Statistical analysis began with presenting descriptive statistics for the variables studied (Table 2). Calculations were performed using the Statistica 13.0 software.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the variables analysed in the study

	Descriptive statistics of the variables analysed
Variable	N	Average	Min	Max	SD
personal attributes	328	22.41	8.00	28.00	4.08
family	328	23.98	4.00	28.00	4.89
friends	328	18 .61	4.00	28.00	6 .69
resilience (overall)	328	64.99	23.00	84.00	12.24
life optimism	328	16.35	3.00	24.00	4.73
life satisfaction	328	23.59	5.00	35.00	6.23

Source: own elaboration.

Relationship between life optimism and personal resilience and life satisfaction in young mothers

Table 3. Relationship between life optimism and personal resilience and life satisfaction in young mothers

	Pearson’s r correlation coefficient, p < .050, N = 328
Variable	Life satisfaction	Personal attributes	Family	Friends	Total resilience
Life optimism	.44 p < .001	.59 p < .001	.30 p < .001	.29 p < .001	.48 p < 0.01

Source: own elaboration.

The statistical analysis results indicate a significant relationship between life optimism and life satisfaction in young mothers (r = .44, p < .001) as well as between life optimism and various dimensions of personal resilience: personal attributes (r = .59, p < .001), family (r = .30, p < .001), friends (r = .29, p < .001) and overall resilience (r = .48, p < .01). Higher levels of optimism in the surveyed mothers were associated with higher life satisfaction and higher levels of resilience in young mothers.

Relationship between life optimism and life satisfaction in young mothers

Next, the relationship between life optimism and life satisfaction among young mothers was analysed. For this purpose, the Pearson’s r correlation coefficient was used (Table 4).

Table 4. Relationship between life optimism and life satisfaction in young mothers

Variable	Pearson’s r correlation coefficient N = 328
	Life satisfaction
Life optimism	.44 p < .001

Source: own elaboration.

The results of the statistical analysis indicate a significant relationship between the level of life optimism and life satisfaction in young mothers (r = .44; p < .001). The higher the level of optimism in the surveyed mothers, the higher was the level of life satisfaction among young mothers.

Relationship between life optimism and personal resilience in young mothers

The next phase of statistical analysis was aimed to identify the relationship between life optimism and dimensions of personal resilience in young mothers. The Pearson’s r correlation coefficient was used (Table 5).

Table 5. Relationship between life optimism and dimensions of resilience in young mothers

	Pearson’s r correlation coefficient N = 328
Variable	Personal attributes	Family	Friends	Overall resilience
Life optimism	.59 p < .001	.30 p < .001	.29 p < .001	.48 p < 0.01

Source: own elaboration.

The analyses indicate a significant relationship between the level of life optimism and specific dimensions of personal resilience: personal attributes (r = .59; p < .001), family (r = .30; p < .001), friends (r = .29; p < .001) and overall resilience (r = .48; p < .01). The higher the level of optimism in the surveyed mothers, the greater was the resilience characterising the young mothers.

Relationship between levels of personal resilience and life satisfaction in young mothers

The following step involved examining the relationship between the level of personal resilience in the mothers surveyed and their life satisfaction, using Pearson’s r correlation coefficient (Table 6).

Table 6. Relationship between levels of personal resilience in mothers and their life satisfaction

Variable	Pearson’s r correlation coefficient N = 328
	Life satisfaction
Personal attributes	.64 p < .001
Family	.54 p < .001
Friends.28 p < .001
Total resilience	.58 p < .001

Source: own elaboration.

The results of the statistical analyses indicate positive relationships between the dimensions of personal resilience (personal resources r = .64, p < .001; family r = .54, p < .001; friends r = .28, p < .001; overall resilience r = .58, p < .001) and life satisfaction. The higher the level of resilience in specific dimensions and overall resilience, the higher was the life satisfaction experienced by young mothers.

Life optimism and personal resilience as predictors of life satisfaction in young mothers

Another statistical analysis – multiple regression – was performed to determine predictors of life satisfaction in young mothers (Table 7, Figure 1).

Table 7. Predictors of life satisfaction in young mothers

N = 328	Summary of the dependent variable regression: Life satisfaction R2= .38 F(2.325) = 97.637 p < .001 std. error of estimation: 4.94
	b*	Std. error of b*	b	Std. error of b	t(325)	p
Intercept			3.05	1.50	2.03	.044
resilience	.48	.05	.25	.03	9.72	< .001
optimism	.21	.05	.28	.07	4.20	< .0001

Figure 1. Predictors of life satisfaction in young mothers

The variables included in the model significantly explain the explained variable – the life satisfaction in young women (F(2.25)=97.64 p<.001). The observed variance in this variable is explained at 38% (adjusted R²=.371). Thus, 38% of the variability in life satisfaction among young mothers can be attributed to the independent variables of personal resilience and life optimism. The remaining 62% may be explained by other factors not accounted for in the model. The analysis indicates that personal resilience (beta = .48; p <.001) has a stronger impact on life satisfaction among young mothers than life optimism (beta = .21; p < .001). It was found that the higher the levels of personal resilience and life optimism, the greater was the level of life satisfaction among the women studied.

Life optimism as a mediator in the relationship between personal resilience of young women-mothers and their life satisfaction

The next set of analyses presented concerns identifying the role of dispositional optimism as a mediator between the level of personal resilience of the mothers studied and their life satisfaction. To accomplish this, it was first necessary to check the significance of the relationships between:

1. the level of personal resilience and the level of optimism,
2. the level of optimism and life satisfaction,
3. the level of resilience and life satisfaction.
4. Identifying the significance of these relationships will allow optimism to be included in the analysis of the relationship between personal resilience and life satisfaction among young mothers. If in this configuration, the optimism variable shows a significant decrease in the beta coefficient for the calculated relationship between the level of resilience and life satisfaction, we can consider it to have a mediating role (C’; Figure 2).

Figure 2. Diagram of the relationship between the independent variable (resilience level) and the dependent variable (life satisfaction) through the mediating variable (optimism) – the sought mediator in the relationship between variable X and variable Y. Baron and Kenny’s approach.

A mediation analysis was conducted according to the approach proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986) and supplemented with the Sobel test (1982).

In the first stage of the mediation analysis, the following were established: independent variable – resilience level, mediator – optimism, and dependent variable – life satisfaction. A direct relationship was confirmed between the independent variable – resilience level, and the mediator – optimism (A). As predicted, the higher the resilience level of young mothers, the higher was their level of optimism (β = .48; p < .001). The regression model tested was well-suited to the data (F(1.326) = 95.65; p < .001; R² = .23).

In the second step of the analysis, the significance of the relationship between the mediator (optimism) and the dependent variable (life satisfaction, B) was examined. Again, the relationship proved significant: the higher the level of optimism among the women, the higher was their overall life satisfaction (β = .44; p < .001), and the model was well-suited to the data (F(1.326) = 78.38; p < .001; R² = .19).

The third step of the mediation analysis involved determining the relationship between the independent variable (resilience level) and the dependent variable (life satisfaction, C). It was found that the higher the level of resilience characterising the mothers studied, the higher was their life satisfaction (β = .58; p < .001). The regression model tested was well-suited to the data (F(1.326) = 168.99; p < .001; R² = .34).

Finally, when both the independent variable and the mediator were included in the tested model, the role of the independent variable in prediction was reduced (β = .48; p < .001), while the mediator remained significantly related to the dependent variable (β = .21; p < .001, F(2.325) = 97.64; p < .001, R² = .38). The Sobel test yielded a result of 3.61; p <.001.

This suggests partial mediation by optimism, as the Sobel test result is statistically significant, and the beta value in the regression of the independent variable on the dependent variable in the presence of the mediator is weakened (β = .58 -> β = .48). Thus, it can be concluded that optimism is a significant mediator in the relationship between resilience levels in women-mothers and their life satisfaction: the higher the resilience level of the mothers studied, the higher their life satisfaction, with a high level of optimism also present (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Diagram of the mediating role of optimism between resilience level of young mothers and their life satisfaction (***p<.001)

Discussion

The conducted study aimed to determine the relationships between dispositional optimism, resilience and life satisfaction among young mothers. Both dispositional optimism and resilience proved to be significantly important for the life satisfaction of women entering the role of motherhood. In line with assumptions supported by the literature, young women who exhibit high levels of dispositional optimism and high levels of resilience are the most satisfied with their lives. Simultaneously, life optimism was shown to act as a mediator between the level of resilience in young mothers and their experienced life satisfaction. It was observed that the higher the level of personal resilience, the higher was the level of life satisfaction experienced by young mothers when accompanied by a high level of dispositional optimism. This highlights the significant role of optimism as a factor shaping the perception of life quality and interpersonal relationships (Modzelewski, 2016). Consequently, it may be concluded that optimism plays a supportive role in coping with the challenges a mother faces upon the arrival of a child. In light of the changes and demands associated with education, the requirements of the modern labour market and career development, parenting becomes exceptionally challenging and often difficult to reconcile with other life goals (Garncarek, 2017).   

The results obtained correspond with the research findings described in the literature, indicating the significant role of resilience as a buffering factor against the negative impacts on an individual's well-being (Semmer, 2006; Ogińska-Bulik, 2014). They also highlight the importance of dispositional optimism for well-being, achieving life successes and resistance to stressful life events (Scheier, Carver, 1994), as well as its association with life success and positive life evaluations (Poprawa, 1996; Olbrycht, 2010; Łukasiewicz &Paśnikowska, 2016).

There are, however, some limitations to the presented study. One such limitation concerns the limited possibility of generalising the research results to the whole population. This is evidenced, for example, by the targeted selection of participants in the study group, which included mothers in early adulthood. Conducting research in a more structured group, such as one including a greater number of individuals at different developmental stages, could provide more precise information on the nature of motherhood and life satisfaction, as well as its quality and the complexity of its determinants. Much of the present research was conducted within a correlational framework. This allowed for the identification of significant relationships between the analysed variables but prevented causal inference (Sierau& Herzberg, 2012). In the future, it would be valuable to conduct research that reveals the structure of causal relationships and the influence of specific variables on the quality of functioning in young mothers – their optimism, resilience and life satisfaction. In future research, it would be beneficial to include other variables in the area of exploration, which may prove to be relevant for the quality of motherhood and its importance for the quality of life in general. The literature indicates that good assessment of life satisfaction depends on satisfaction with partner relationships (Doroszewicz, 2008; Fincham, 2008), but also parental role fulfilment (Bakiera, 2013), stress management strategies, control over emotions (Półtorak, 2013), social support (Cutrona, 1996; Cutrona, Sheffer, Wesner, Gardner, 2007; Dehle, Landers, 2005), attachment style (Plopa, 2005; Hazan, Shaver, 1987; Bartholomew, Horowitz, 1991), quality of bonding with the child (Suwalska-Barancewicz& Malina, 2019) and self-esteem (Suwalska-Barancewicz, 2018). In the search for determinants of the functioning of young mothers in the dynamically changing world, it may also be beneficial to consider external conditions that are relevant to the quality of motherhood and perceived satisfaction, such as socioeconomic status, financial support, division of household responsibilities and the way they are performed, since, as indicated in the literature, these may be factors that modify the quality of family functioning (Brannon, 2002).

The presented research does not exhaust the wide spectrum of issues related to motherhood and the satisfaction derived from it, constituting one of many paths to exploring this matter. The phenomenon of motherhood, influenced by the life histories of mothers, support networks and many diverse factors, merits deeper scientific reflection. The presented results could serve as a starting point for posing further questions and continuing exploration in the area of family life quality.

References:

Bakiera, L. (2013). Zaangażowane rodzicielstwo a autokreacyjny aspekt rozwoju dorosłych. Wydawnictwo Difin.

Baron, R. M., Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6),1173-82.

Bartholomew, K., Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment Styles Among Young Adults: A Test of Four-Category Model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(2), 226-244.

Brannon, L. (2002). Psychologia rodzaju. GWP.

Caprara,  G. V., Steca, P., Alessandri, G., Abela, J. R., McWhinni, C. D. (2010), Positive orientation: Exploration on what is common to life satisfaction, self-esteem, and optimism, Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences,19 (1), 63-71

Carver, C.S, Scheier, M.F. (1994). Situational coping and coping dispositions in a stressful transaction. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol.66(1): 184–195.

Carver, C.S, Scheier, M.F, Segerstrom, S.C. (2010). Optimism. Clin. Psychol. Rev.30(7), 879–889.

Celińska-Miszczuk, A. Wiśniewska, L. (2016). „Być dzieckiem, kiedy mama jest zaradna”. Teraźniejszość oraz przyszłość dziecka z perspektywy matek dzieci przedszkolnych. W: M. Z.Stepulak, J. Łukasiewicz (red),System rodzinny w ujęciu temporalnym. Przeszłość – Teraźniejszość – Przyszłość (s. 287-302). Wydawnictwo Naukowe Innovation Press.

Chybicka, A. (2008). Zadowolenie ze związku intymnego oraz psychologiczne zyski i koszty związane z pozostawaniem w relacji – analiza porównawcza bezdzietnych związków małżeńskich i niemałżeńskich o podobnym stażu. PsychologiaRozwojowa13, 3,  79-9.

Connor, K.M. (2006) Assessment of resilience in the aftermath of trauma, Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(2), 46-49.

Cutrona, C. E. (1996). Social support in couples.Sage.

Cutrona, C. E., Shaffer, P. A., Wesner, K. A., Gardner, K. A. (2007). Optimally matching support and perceived spousal sensitivity. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 754–758.

Czapiński J. (2005). Optymiści i ryzykanci. Polskie paradoksy. W: M. Drogosz (red.). Jak Polacy przegrywają, jak Polacy wygrywają? (s.127-148). Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.

Czerw, A. (2009). Optymizm. Perspektywa psychologiczna. Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psychologiczne.

Dehle, C., Landers, J. E. (2005). You can’t always get what you want, but can you get what you need? Personality traits and social support in marriage, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24 (7), 1051-1076.

Deręgowska, J., Majorczyk, M. (2012). Poglądy młodych kobiet na rolę matki we współczesnym świecie. Komunikat z badań. W: J. Deręgowska, M. Majorczyk (red.), Konteksty współczesnego macierzyństwa. Perspektywa młodych naukowców (s. 11-25). WSNHiD.

Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49 (1), 71-75.

Doroszewicz, K. (2008). Bliskie związki a jakość życia. Psychologia jakości życia,7(1,2), 5-18.

Fincham, F. D. (2008). Marital happiness. The Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology. John Wiley.

Garncarek, E. (2017). Podejmowanie decyzji o dobrowolnej bezdzietności w kontekście jakości relacji małżeńskiej. Dyskursy Młodych Andragogów 18, 373-387.

Gil, S., Weinberg, M. (2015). Coping strategies and internal resources of dispositional optimism and mastery as predictors of traumatic exposure and of PTSD symptoms: A prospective study. Psychol. Trauma. Theory. Res. Pract. Policy; 7(4), 405–411.

Hazan C., Shaver P. (1987), Romantic Love Conceptualized as an Attachment Process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511 – 524.

Henderson, A., Harmon, S. Newman, H. (2016). The price mother pay, even when they are not buying it: mental health consequences of idealized motherhood. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, (11-12), 512.

Heszen, I., Sęk, H. (2007). Psychologia zdrowia.Wydawnictwo PWN.

International Test Commission. (2005). International Guidelines on Computer-Based and Internet Delivered Testing. http://www.practest.com.pl/files/ITC-Stosowanie_test%C3%B3w.pdf

Isen, A.M. (2004). Rola neuropsychologii w zrozumieniu korzystnego wpływu afektu pozytywnego na zachowania społeczne i procesy poznawcze. W: J. Czapiński (red.).
Psychologia pozytywna. Nauka o szczęściu, zdrowiu, sile i cnotach człowieka. (s. 284-302). Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

Jarmołowska, A. (2017). W oczekiwaniu na macierzyństwo. Funkcjonowanie kobiet z problemami w prokreacji. W: A. Celińska-Miszczuk, L. A. Wiśniewska (red.). Macierzyństwo. Szanse i ograniczenia. Perspektywa psychologii osoby, (s. 74-99). Difin.

Juczyński, Z. (2009). Narzędzia pomiaru w promocji i psychologii zdrowia. Warszawa: Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych.

Koronkiewicz K. (2014), Kształtowanie tożsamości matki u kobiet doświadczających nieplanowanego macierzyństwa. Kultura – Społeczeństwo – Edukacja,1, 5, 95–118.

Łukasiewicz, J., Paśnikowska, B. (2016). Nadzieje i obawy studentów ukraińskich podejmujących studia w Polsce. Roczniki Teologiczne LXIII, 11, 235-248.

Malina, A., Pooley, J.A., Harms C. (2016). Skala Osobistej Adaptacyjności - polska adaptacja Lifespan Individual Resilience Scale. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 59, 4, 435-45.

Modzelewski, P. (2016). Szczęście i optymizm a funkcjonowanie relacji miłosnych –podejście psychoedukacyjne na podstawie psychologii pozytywnej. Psychoseksuologia,2, 37-46.

Molenda, K. (2016). Wychowanie dziecka: problemy współczesnego macierzyństwa. Dostęp17.06.2019: https://www.mjakmama24.pl/dziecko/wychowanie/wychowanie-dziecka-problemy-wspolczesnego-macierzynstwa-aa-m9vL-ZJxB-stGX.html

Ogińska-Bulik N. (2014). Prężność psychiczna a zadowolenie z życia osób uzależnionych od alkoholu. Alocholism and Drug Addiction,27/4, 319-324.

Ogińska-Bulik, N., Juczyński, Z. (2008). Osobowość. Stres a zdrowie. Wydawnictwo Difin.

Olbrycht, K. (2010). Wychowanie do nadziei, Fides et Ratio: kwartalnik naukowy Towarzystwa Uniwersyteckiego Fides et Ratio 2(2), 39-45.

Paliga, M., Chrupała-Pniak, M., Pollak, A. (2019). Prężność psychiczna i orientacja pozytywna a wydajność pracowników. Rola psychologicznego zespołowego klimatu bezpieczeństwa. Zarządzanie Zasobami Ludzkimi 3-4 (128), 121-138.

Plopa, M. (2005). Więzi w małżeństwie i rodzinie-metody badań. Wydawnictwo „Impuls”.

Pooley, J.A., & Cohen, L. (2010), Resilience: A Definition in Context. The Australian Community Psychologist, 22(1), 30-37.

Pooley, J.A., Cohen, L. & O’Connor M. (2010). Community Resilience: A Study of Communities Facing Impending Natural Disasters. Lambert Academic Publishing.

Poprawa, R., Juczyński, Z. (2009). Adaptacja Testu Orientacji Życiowej LOT-R. W: Juczyński Z. NPPPZ – Narzędzia Pomiaru w Promocji i Psychologii Zdrowia, wyd. 2. Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych.

Półtorak, M. (2013). Psychiczne mechanizmy odczuwanego stresu i zadowolenia partnerów ze związku w okresie przyjścia na świat pierwszego dziecka. Niepublikowana praca doktorska. Promotor: Barbara Tryjarska, UW.

Prati. G., Pietrantoni, L. (2009). Optimism, social support, and coping strategies as factors contributing to posttraumatic growth: A meta-analysis. J. Loss Trauma,14(5), 364–388.

Semmer, N. (2006). Personality, stress and coping. [w:] Vollrath M. (red.) Handbook of Personality and Health.J.Wiley.

Poprawa R. (1996). Zasoby osobiste w radzeniu sobie ze stresem. W: G. Dolińska-Zygmunt (red.). Elementy psychologii zdrowia, (s. 101–136).Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego.

Scheier M.F., Carver C.S. (1992). Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-
being: Theoretical overview and empirical update. CognitiveTherapy and Research, 16, 201–228.

Seligman, M.E.P. (2003). Prawdziwe szczęście. Psychologia pozytywna a urzeczywistnienie naszych możliwości trwałego spełnienia. Media Rodzina.

Seligman, M.E.P. (2005). Optymizmu można się nauczyć. Jak zmienić swoje myślenie i swoje życie. Media Rodzina.

Sierau, S., Herzberg, P. Y. (2012). Conflict Resolution as a Dyadic Mediator: Considering the Partner Perspective on Conflict Resolution. European Journal of Personality, 26, 221–232.

Sobel, M. E. (1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural quation models. In S. Leinhart (Ed.), Sociological Methodology (pp. 290-312). Jossey-Bass.

Srivastava, S., & Angelo, K. M. (2009). Optimism, effects on relationships. Encyclopedia of human relationships.Sage, 10(9781412958479), n383.

Suwalska-Barancewicz, D. (2018). Jakość związku partnerskiego a satysfakcja z życia młodych matek - mediacyjna rola samooceny. Psychologia Rozwojowa, 23, 2, 49-65.

Suwalska-Barancewicz, Malina, A. (2019). Jakość więzi z dzieckiem i prężność matek a ich satysfakcja z życia. Psychologia Rozwojowa, 24, 4, 23-38.

Thomas, J.L, Britt, T.W, Odle-Dusseau, H., Bliese, P.D. (2011). Dispositional optimism buffers combat veterans from the negative effects of warzone stress on mental healthsymptoms and work impairment. J. Clin. Psychol., 67(9), 866–88.

Tugade, M. M., Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). Resilient Individuals Use Positive Emotions to Bounce Back From Negative Emotional Experiences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(2), 320–333.

Włodarczyk, E. (2012). O „rodzeniu się” macierzyństwa. [w:] J. Deręgowska, M. Majorczyk (red.), Konteksty współczesnego macierzyństwa. Perspektywa młodych naukowców, (s. 101-127).Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM.

Prawa autorskie: © Wydział Psychologii, Uniwersytet Kazimierza Wielkiego. Jest to czasopismo Open Access, wszystkie artykuły rozpowszechniane są na warunkach licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa-Użycie niekomercyjne-Na tych samych warunkach 4.0 Międzynarodowe (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/), co pozwala osobom trzecim na kopiowanie i redystrybucję materiału w dowolnym medium lub formacie, a także na remiksowanie, przekształcanie i rozwijanie materiału, pod warunkiem prawidłowego cytowania oryginalnego dzieła i wskazania licencji.