Jakub Hartung-Wójciak, Kosma Kołodziej Body image and sexual satisfaction among adult heterosexual and homosexual men in Poland

Artykuł jest dostępny na warunkach międzynarodowej licencji 4.0 (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

Introduction

Body image is an ambiguous theoretical construct. This paper adopts the multidimensional view of body image proposed by L. Franzoi and S. A. Shields (1984) expressed in an objectively scored Body Esteem Scale.

Body image (Cash, 2011) - as a phenomenon in which we can distinguish such dimensions as cognitive, emotional and behavioral. Body image is shaped by developmental experiences and social messages. Such a way of capturing this complex phenomenon allows us to think of body image in terms of attitude (Cash, 2011; Brytek-Matera, 2008; Chrostowska-Buzun 2001).

The cognitive aspect of body image refers to the subjectively perceived: shape, size and weight of the body or its parts, (Rucker, Cash 1992, As in: Nitsch et al., 2012) and cognitive beliefs and schemas about body image ( cf. Cash, 2011; Izydorczyk, 2014). Beliefs and schemas will condition a person's characteristic way of thinking about his own body. Automatic thoughts and cognitive distortions characteristic of the individual can cause certain emotions. B. Izydorczyk (2014) points out that the cognitive and emotional aspects are related and interdependent mutually. T. Cash and his team (2011, As in: Izydorczyk, 2014) conceptualize this relationship as evaluative body image, which results from the perceived difference between an individual's accepted ideal and his actual physicality. This discrepancy is presented by some researchers as the level of body dissatisfaction. This is documented by the research of I. Williamson and P. Hartley (1998), who used the Silhouette Test to compare the level of body dissatisfaction between homosexual and heterosexual men. The discrepancy index based on the cognitive aspect of body image (based on estimates of body size) was a measure of dissatisfaction, thus the emotional component of body image. The multidimensionality of the construct under discussion also refers to the inclusion of assessments of body functions and characteristics, not just individual body parts. The behavioral component is the result of the evaluation of body image, that is, cognitive and emotional attitudes toward it. B. Izydorczyk (2014, p. 37) also points out the influence of all three components on health behavior: "the source of anti-health attitudes toward one's own body are the underlying organizational patterns that regulate the relationship between cognitive, emotional and behavioral processes".

There is no shortage of works in the literature indicating that homosexual men are dissatisfied with their body image (Losiak-Pilch, 2009). This phenomenon was verified using figure-drawing scales (the measure of dissatisfaction was the discrepancy between possessed and expected silhouettes). The results revealed greater discrepancies in the group of homosexual men compared to the group of heterosexual men (Tiggemann, Martins, Kirkbride, 2007). Similar findings came from a meta-analysis comparing body satisfaction among men of different sexual orientations - there, too, homosexual men were less satisfied with their bodies than heterosexual men (Morrison, Morrison, Saper, 2004). According to a study of a sample of 2512 participants (Peplau et al., 2009), heterosexual men, compared to all other sexual orientation groups, reported more positive evaluations of their appearance, less concern about their body weight, a more positive impact of body image on quality of life and quality of sexual life, greater comfort wearing a bathing suit in public, and greater willingness to disclose aspects of their bodies to their partners during sexual activity. Few significant differences were found between homosexual men, homosexual women and heterosexual women (Peplau et al., 2009). Researchers have looked to social learning theory in explaining this differential effect of sexual orientation on body image satisfaction, and have also pointed to greater susceptibility to media messages about the attractiveness of homosexual men compared to heterosexual men (Strong et al., 2001; Levesque, Vichesky,  2006). Kaminski, Chapman and Haynes (2005) also point out that homosexual men, compared to heterosexual men, are more likely to cause cognitive distortions by attributing undue importance to an ideal physique.

Sexual satisfaction is understood here as a theoretical construct describing the subjective degree of satisfaction with sexual life, which includes cognitive and emotional elements and is also influenced by biological and physiological factors. Moreover, this construct is recognized as an important element of sexual health, as well as life satisfaction (Grabowska, 2017).

Davis and his team (2006, As in: Specjalski et al., 2014) sees sexual satisfaction as a construct composed of three elements. The first is physical satisfaction, understood as experiencing bodily pleasure, assessing satisfaction of physical needs and skills of the partner. The next component is emotional satisfaction associated with feelings toward the partner/partner, as well as an assessment of overall satisfaction with the overall relationship. It may be accompanied by such feelings as uncertainty, dilemma, and a sense of security. The final, third component is satisfaction with the control exercised over the course of the sexual act, its initiation and the possibility of interruption and refusal (Specjalski et al., 2014; Kozłowska, Rawinska 2017).

The issue of sexual satisfaction is often linked to relationship satisfaction. This is evident both in the design of tools measuring this dimension of human functioning (e.g., Sexual Satisfaction Questionnaire by M. Plopa, 2017) and in theoretical models, such as the concept of Davis and team (2006, As in: Specjalski et al., 2014) described above. Sprecher and Cate (2004, As in: Plopa, 2017) capture sexual satisfaction as a measure of satisfaction with the sexual components of one's intimate relationship. In their study, Specjalski and colleagues (2014) confirm a significant relationship between sexual satisfaction and relationship satisfaction framed in light of Sternberg's concept of love.

Izydorczyk (2014) distinguishes emotional (satisfaction/dissatisfaction) and cognitive (distortions in perception of body image) components in the structure of attitudes toward body image. Dabkowska (2015) notes that the emotional-cognitive component of this attitude conditions its behavioral component. Negative body image is expressed through maladaptive and often self-destructive sexual, eating and other behaviors related to body concerns (e.g., self-harm). These reactions include, but are not limited to, sexual activity involving sexual satisfaction in its aspects: physical satisfaction, control satisfaction and emotional satisfaction. Individual biological constitution (sexual functioning) influences sexual satisfaction (Holt, Lyness 2007), as well as evaluations and emotions related to various aspects of sexual life (Plopa 2017). The importance of attitudes, beliefs and values on sexual satisfaction is usually explained by cognitive theories (Grabowska 2017). The influence of body beliefs and attitudes on sexual satisfaction, as well as the feedback role of sexual satisfaction for the body, can be inferred from the results of studies by, for example, T. Cash (Gillen, Markey 2019). Studies focusing on the relationship between declared sexual satisfaction and body image satisfaction are not lacking in the available literature on the subject, but they largely refer to women (e.g., Faith and Schare, 1993; Koch, Mansfield et al, 2005; Wiederman, 2000; Machaj and Stankowska, 2011, As in: Dąbkowska, 2015). Ackard and her team (2000) in their research shows a link between body image and the frequency of sexual activity and feelings of comfort during these acts. Body image is also associated with sexuality by influencing engaging in or avoiding risky sexual behavior (Woertman and van den Brink, 2012 As in: Szymanska-Pytlinska 2019).

Sexual satisfaction is an important dimension of human functioning because of, for example, its importance to an individual's well-being. Many researchers emphasize the fact that, for most people, pleasurable sexual experiences are an essential component of overall health-related quality of life (Henderson, Lehavot, Simoni, 2009; Robinson, Molzahn, 2007), and sexual dissatisfaction is associated with lower quality of life and individual well-being (Heiman, 2002; Nicolosi, Moreira, Villa, Glasser, 2004; Tan, Tong, Ho, 2012).

The relationship between body image and men's sexual satisfaction is an issue rarely explored in the Polish scientific literature. Taking as a reference the plethora of publications on how women experience their bodies (Striegel-Moore, Franko 2002; Kobierecka 2012), including in relation to sexual satisfaction (Dabkowska 2015), it can be noted that Polish men (especially homosexual men) are still a poorly studied group.

The purpose of the study described below was to answer three research questions:

1) Does sexual orientation differentiate sexual satisfaction declared by respondents?

2) Is satisfaction with body image related to respondents' self-reported sexual satisfaction ratings?

3) Does sexual orientation differentiate satisfaction with body image declared by respondents?

Materials and Methods

The survey was conducted anonymously using an online questionnaire. The selection of research respondents was targeted. The selection for the sample was intentional. The study group was completed using the snowball method using internet communicators. The questionnaire also included information on voluntary participation in research and anonymity, as well as the usage of information obtained solely for scientific purposes. Skipping to the testing part of the study was treated as an expression of informed consent to participate in the study.

The study was targeted at adult homosexual and heterosexual Polish men. The study group consisted of a total of 120 men: 60 homosexual and 60 heterosexual, aged 18-60. The classification criterion for the actual sample was age between 18 and 60 years old, male gender and homosexual orientation. In turn, heterosexual men between 18 and 60 years old were included in the control group. Groups of homosexual and heterosexual men did not differ in terms of age in a statistically significant way. The average age was 28.8.

The following questionnaires were used in the research: Sexual Satisfaction Scale (Grabowska, 2017) and Body Esteem Scale by S.L. Franzoi and S.A. Shields (1984) in the Polish adaptation of M. Lipowska and M. Lipowski (2013). The Sexual Satisfaction Scale consists five statements which relate directly to satisfaction with sexual life of a respondent. The examined person refers to the above-mentioned statements on a five-point scale. In the pilot study, internal consistency of this scale was found to be satisfactory; Cronbach's alpha equal: .81 (Grabowska 2017). The Body Esteem Scales test consists of 35 items that describe body parts or some of  their functions. The respondent responds to all items on the five-point Likert scale. All subscales are characterized by high reliability; for men at Cronbach's alpha level from .85 to .88 (Lipowska, Lipowski 2013). The results are obtained by adding up the selected digits for individual items of a given subscale. The scale consists of 3 subscales. In the case of men there is: (1) a scale of physical attractiveness which refers to the appearance of the face and such parts of the body that are considered to affect the attractiveness – these are test items such as: nose, cheekbones, lips, feet, buttocks, hips; (2) a scale of upper body strength. This subscale refers to body functions as well as upper body parts, especially those that can be influenced by exercises. The subscales include items such as muscle strength, chest, figure, and sex drive; (3) a scale of physical condition. This subscale applies to both body functions and parts of the body. It concerns the general condition of the body, health and strength. It consists of such items of the test as: physical fitness, reflexes, weight and physical conditions.

Sexual orientation due to the purpose of the study and the nature of the other variables was determined on the basis of the respondents' declarations of belonging to one of the three distinguished categories of: heterosexual, bisexual and homosexual. Authors understood it as an expression of part of the sexual identity of the respondents.

Results

In order to check the variability of the distinguished variables for the whole sample and taking into account sexual orientation, mean values and standard deviations were calculated. The skewness and kurtosis values were used to verify the normality of variable distribution. The results of the analyzes are presented in the table below (Table 1).

Table 1. Characteristics of mean values, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis in terms of body image, age and sexual satisfaction in the study group

The results collected in Table 1 above for all subjects show that the average age was 28.82 (SD = 8.92); 29.17 (SD=8.51) for homosexual men and 28.47 (SD=9.37) for heterosexual men. The mean sexual satisfaction for all subjects was 18.02 (high level of sexual satisfaction); (SD = 4.31). 16.92 is the mean sexual satisfaction for homosexuals (moderate level of sexual satisfaction), and in the heterosexual group the mean was 19.13 (high level of sexual satisfaction). The mean satisfaction with body, physical attractiveness for all subjects was 39.36 (out of 55 possible); (SD = 7.17). 38.4 was the average for homosexual men 40.32 while for heterosexuals.  The mean of the aspect of satisfaction with body image-body strength for all subjects was 29.81 (out of a possible 45); (SD = 7.92). 28.1 was for homosexual men and 31.52 for heterosexual men. The mean of satisfaction with body image, physical condition for all subjects was 41.07 (out of 65 possible); (SD = 9.41). 39.87 was the mean value obtained in homosexual men, 42.27 in heterosexual men.

Table 2. Characteristics of mean values and standard deviations in terms of sexual satisfaction in the examined group together with the Student's t test for independent groups and the value of Cohen's d effect strength.

An analysis of the values contained in the Table 2 indicates that homosexual men differ from heterosexual men in terms of the variable: sexual satisfaction in a statistically significant way. This effect is characterized by average strength. Homosexual men – if compared to heterosexual men - revealed a lower level of sexual satisfaction.

Table 3. Pearson's correlation coefficients between body image dimensions and sexual satisfaction in homosexual and heterosexual men (N = 120).

The analysis of Pearson's correlation coefficient values presented in the Table 3 indicates a statistically significant positive relationship with an average strength between body image satisfaction in all three dimensions and the sexual satisfaction of the subjects. Along with the increase in body image satisfaction (regardless of the aspect of this image being considered), the declared male sexual satisfaction also increases.

Table 4. Characteristics of mean values and standard deviations in the body image diemension in the examined group together with values from the Student's t test for independent groups and values of the Cohen d effect strength.

Homosexual men differ from heterosexual men to some extent in terms of body image variable, what was presented in the table 4. This difference is statistically significant only for satisfaction with upper body strength; in all aspects of body satisfaction the difference has a small effect size.

Discussion

The results indicate that heterosexual men declare lower sexual satisfaction than heterosexual men. These conclusions are different from those obtained in the studies of T. J. Pereira and colleagues (2019). The cited researchers found no significant difference in this respect between heterosexual and homosexual men. The relationship obtained is also the opposite of that demonstrated by A. Kozłowska and M. Rawińska (2017) in a sample of women with different sexual orientations. Discrepancy between the results of the above reports may be the result of cultural differences, as well as the specificity of the methods of measurement. The difference between the group of homosexual women and homosexual men seems to be in line with the statement that the impact of sexual orientation on human functioning varies depending on gender (Iniewicz, 2020). The ambiguity of the results in this respect may set the direction for further research.

The results of own research confirm the expected positive correlation between body image satisfaction and perceived sexual satisfaction. Such conclusions are in line with previous reports of other researchers (Dąbkowska, 2015; Kobierecka, 2012; Rybicka-Klimczyk, Brytek-Matera, 2008) who found such correlation in research in a group of women. The results also seem to be consistent with the adopted concept of body image as an attitude consisting of a cognitive-emotional assessment affecting undertaken behavior, including sexual behavior.

Conclusion regarding the occurrence of statistically significant differences in the declared satisfaction with body image between homosexual and heterosexual men is confirmed by previous reports of researchers. For example, I. Williamson and P. Hartley (1998) examined above-mentioned regularity using the Silhouette Test and the divergence indicator. This relationship was also confirmed by M. A. Morrison and T. G. Morrison and Saper C. L. (2004) in their meta-analysis. This difference in own research turned out to be significant only for one dimension of the body image - body strength, related to the assessment of appearance and function, especially those parts that can be modified through exercise. Such results can be explained by the increase of "tyrannizing" sociocultural influence regarding the ideal of the male figure in general, which may reduce body satisfaction also in heterosexual men, reducing differences in this respect in relation to the homosexual group.

The authors also point out the limitations of the research conducted. Since the research was conducted via the Internet (both the selection of the sample and the acquisition of empirical material was done virtually), limitations typical of this formula may have emerged. An undoubted limitation of the own research was also the exclusion of bisexual men from the group and, as a result, the possibility of defining their orientation only as homosexual or heterosexual, which makes it impossible to treat analyses related to sexual orientation as referring to the phenomenon in a holistic manner.

Conclusion

Although each of the issues addressed - sexual satisfaction, body image and sexual orientation - as a separate topic area is present in academic discourse, the research project described in this paper complements the researchers' findings to some extent. Combining these three variables in a single research model seems to be a novel idea in Polish science.

The information obtained from our own research, despite the necessary caution in generalizing it to the entire population, can be useful to therapists and psychologists working with homosexual men. It is worth highlighting here the existence of the phenomenon of sexualization in the context of body image, the objectification of the body, which ceases to be a source of pleasure. The body begins to be used instrumentally, and thus must be subjected to strict control (Ziółkowska, 2003). In addition, it is given the status of a sexual object, which has to meet the appropriate requirements - in accordance with the promoted pattern of attractiveness. Such a message impacts in three dimensions - social, interpersonal and intrapsychic. In the social and interpersonal dimension as media messages and feedback from the environment (comments, remarks, compliments and others). In the intrapsychic dimension, such an impact occurs when sociocultural messages regarding both the pattern of body image attractiveness and those regarding the need to be sexy/sexy are internalized (Izydorczyk, Rybicka-Klimczyk, 2009). The above phenomena in the literature are most often referred to women. However, modern men are also targeted by "bullying" media messages about the need to change their bodies to be attractive, sexy and socially acceptable. Although it has become established that it is typically feminine, and even normative, for women to be dissatisfied with their bodies, it has been observed in the last decade that body image problems have increased in men and that they are experiencing the negative health consequences of being dissatisfied with their bodies (Liechty et al., 2014). In addition, as already mentioned, the thoughts generated as a result of body schema activation evoke certain emotions. These emotions are the motivation for taking action to self-regulate, although there are times when these behaviors can prove to be anti-health. Examples of such behaviors include excessive exercise, starving oneself vs. overeating, using laxatives to reduce body weight, and provoking vomiting. These are perpetuated through a system of reinforcement, and if such regulation mechanisms persist over a long period of time, they become a risk factor for the development of eating disorders (Rybicka-Klimczyk, Brytek-Matera, 2008). People with eating disorders manifest greater dissatisfaction with their bodies, experience more unpleasant emotions in relation to their bodies, and present numerous cognitive distortions related to the evaluation of their body image (Schier, 2010; Brytek-Matera, 2008; Nitsh et al, 2012). People who are dissatisfied with their appearance are sometimes at the same time more likely to be negatively influenced by media messages about attractiveness, which, in turn, will further reduce this satisfaction (Brytek-Matera, 2008). Body image and its evaluation are also an important factor for feelings of quality of life and psychological well-being (Striegel-Moore, Franko, 2002).

Conclusions from the analysis of the results can contribute to the understanding of the unique way of experiencing one's own body, as well as its impact on sexuality in homosexual men, while pointing out elements independent of orientation, such as the relationship between satisfaction with body image and declared sexual satisfaction. The researchers' inconclusive conclusions on the findings to date on the subject point to the need for further research in this area.

                                                                                              Translated by Authors

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