Barbara Mróz Preferred professional functioning styles and selected personality traits for employees in management positions.A new approach

Artykuł jest dostępny na warunkach międzynarodowej licencji 4.0 (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).

Introduction

The importance of a professional role may have various dimensions. It is worth examining those areas that the psychologist can precisely define by operationalizing the variables included in the research project. In this study, this applies to the choice of professional functioning styles. Satisfaction of one’s own needs in fulfilling a professional role takes place through specific educational choices, as well as by undertaking tasks recommended by superiors or chosen by others (Kapica, Baka, Stachura-Krzyształowicz, 2022).

On the one hand, a professional role may be associated with possible factors of professional advancement, but on the other hand, it may be perceived as independent of them. The style of professional functioning an employee feels bestin will be related to his or her personality traits, the work results achieved so far, and the current level of satisfaction.

Selected concepts of management styles

Management psychology provides many ways of transferring knowledge, skills and ways of identifying employees (Ryan, Huta, Deci, 2008; Brown et al., 2009; Mróz, 2015, 2016; Baka, 2017; Lipińska-Grobelny, 2021). In the context of the topic of this article, two models take into account the human factor on the one hand and the tasks to be performed on the other. The management grid of Robert Blake and Jane Mouton and the model of Ronald Lippitt and Ralph White will be presented below. Both of these concepts include the importance of personal and professional competencies.

Robert Blake and Jane Mouton’s Managerial Grid

Looking for an answer to the question of whether an effective leader can take care of both the tasks to be performed and the people at the same level, R. Blake and J. Mouton developed a managerial grid in which two factors regarding production orientation and people orientation were listed on a nine-point scale (Blake, Mouton, 1982, 1985). On this basis, five basic leadership styles were distinguished: indifferent, accommodating, dictatorial, status quo, (compromise) and sound.

Figure 1. The Blake Mouton Managerial Grid

Source: Blake, Mouton, 1985, p. 4.

Indifferent style (box 1,1). It describes people who are passive in contact and do not show much interest in employees, tasks and production. They reduce their participation in the organization to a minimal level of commitment. They don’t like situations in which someone asks them for help, they prefer not to get involved.

Accommodating style (box 1,9). It describes people who have this management style and are all “for the people.”They attach great importance to the role of employees in the functioning of the company, ask them for help in making decisions, and seek their opinions. They pay the most attention to people’s needs and they care about the good and harmonious work of the team, but they do not show much interest in production.

Dictatorial style (box 9,1). This style represents the opposite of the accommodating style. Managers whose management can be described with this style are autocrats who pay the most attention to the efficient implementation of tasks and are not interested in employees. They manage independently, make important decisions themselves, and do not allow employees any autonomy.

Status quo style (box 5,5). It is a middle-of-the-road style of accommodating and dictatorial styles, in which the managers pay equal attention to employees and production. Organizational effectiveness is the result of performing tasks well and treating people well.

Sound style (box 9,9). This is a preference for action focused to a comparable extent on tasks and employees, and the employee does it in a superior manner, and may not necessarily have such formal authority. Balanced relationships in the team are identical to the company’s goal and lead to high achievements at work. According to Blake and Mouton, this is the best leadership style (Blake, Mouton, 1985; Burke, 2018).

In the concept of a managerial grid, great attention is paid to the combination of focus on production and people, which may be the optimal determinant of good management (Kożusznik, 2002). Blake and Mouton’s concept can also be interpreted not only in terms of people management styles but also the chosen direction of professional functioning (Chmiel, 2003). In psychology, it is customary to treat a concept in an evaluative manner depending on the methods associated with it. A concept that meets this criterion will be presented below.

Management styles according to Ronald Lippitt and Ralph White

Management styles developed by R. Lippitt and R. White refer to, among others: the legacy of H. Murray and the theory of needs (Murray, 2008). The needs identified by him relate to a significant extent to professional functioning, which makes it possible to place them and verify them in various professional contexts. During the 15 years of his Explorations in personality research, Murray gathered a group of distinguished collaborators, including D. McKinnon, S. Rosenzweig, J. Frank, N. Sanford, E. Erikson and R. White. The researchers mentioned above have become recognized psychologists dealing, on their own, with, among others, the psychosocial theory of development (Erikson) or leadership styles (White) (Murray 2008).

Lippitt and White divided the most basic three dominant management styles: autocratic style, democratic (participative) style and laissez-faire style (White, Lippitt, 1968; White, 1975).

The autocratic style shows the manager’s lack of trust in the staff and there is an atmosphere of competition. Employees (not the organization) are personally responsible for any failures. This method of management is the opposite of cooperation, and the managing person’s role is more of a judge than a superior (Terelak, 2005, 2007; Mróz, 2011). This is a strong, autonomous management style, and the person who demonstrates it makes decisions about everything on their own and does not need consultants.

The laissez-faire (liberal) style is implemented through the manager’s passive participation in the implementation of tasks assigned to the employees. Management using this style creates the appearance of extensive employee independence, which in fact results from the manager’s withdrawal from action and avoidance of making decisions. Such management may cause task disorganization.

The democratic (participative) style can be considered as opposed to the autocratic style. The prevailing attitude here is cooperation and mutual involvement of the superior and employees in making decisions and carrying out work. Unlike the previously described autocratic style, here the manager does not play the role of a judge but of an advisor who cares about teamwork. However, for this style to be implemented, it requires not only the competence of the superior but also the psychosocial maturity of the employees (Mróz, 2011; Mróz, Chudzicka-Czupała, Kuśpit, 2017).

Lippitt and White’s approach assumes that the leader and his or her competencies have the most important role in any employee structure. This concept, due to its embeddedness in personality and management psychology and methodological transparency was chosen by B. Mróz for verification and construction of a research tool.

Method

Purpose of research, methods, respondents

Taking into account the presented literature review on the subject, the research aimed to verify a new method related to the styles that employees may display at work and thus obtain data on various behaviors and attitudes in work teams. The basic goal of the reported research, which is to measure, analyze and present research results in the area of three types of professional functioning styles (authoritarian, liberal, participative), will be achieved through the context and conditions of selected personality traits and gender. The subject, purpose and issues of the research determined the main criteria for selecting the study group. A hypothesis (H1) was formulated according to which the participative style will be most prevalent in the group of women in managerial positions. The next research hypothesis (H2) indicates the relationship between selected personality traits (need for dominance, need for achievement, competence) with the preferred styles of professional functioning among employees in managerial positions.

Research methods used and methods of measuring variables

The following research methods were used in the research: a new tool: the SFZ Professional Functioning Styles Scale, the ACL Adjective Check List along with the dimensions of the Personality-Axiological Model (MOA) (competencies, relationships, autonomy) and the personal data sheet.

Professional Functioning Scale (SFZ) by Barbara Mróz

The Professional Functioning Scale (SFZ) by B. Mróz was created based on the concept of leadership styles by Lippit and White, in which the key role in the workplace is assigned to the leader. The construction of the scale was described in detail by the author in 2011. The manager’s influence affects the attitudes of employees and the social climate of the organization, which determines the effectiveness and subsequent success of the company. Research using the new method allowed us to identify three styles: autocratic, liberal and participative. Each of the presented styles differs from the others, characterized by different personality properties of the manager, such as the attitude of the superior towards employees, participation in teamwork, contribution to decision-making, preference for using rewards or penalties towards subordinates, authority, dominance, imposing one’s will or freedom in action. Personality traits, habits and inclinations, as well as the influence of organizational culture, are responsible for the choice of management style (Terelak, 2007; Mróz, 2011).

The Professional Functioning Scale (SFZ) has 40 items which should be answered by selecting an answer on a 5-point Likert scale (from strongly agree to strongly disagree, in variable configurations). The number of statements consists of 7 for each professional functioning style, 17 questions regarding social approval and the remaining 2 buffer questions.

The content validity of the method was assessed by nine competent judges (management psychologists, personality psychologists, economists and specialists in organization and management). They assessed individual dimensions, compared them with the respondents’ statements, and also assessed the linguistic layer of all dimensions.

It was assumed that professional functioning styles would be understood as undertaking each specific activity and action that leads to a positive professional effect. The calculated agreement indices of W Kendall’s competent judges ranged from .71 to .82. This is how the definitional accuracy was examined and the values of the terms were assessed in terms of content representativeness of the studied area.

A group of production and sales department managers (198 people) took part in the procedure of determining the theoretical validity of the Professional Functioning Scale using the method of correlation with other research tools. Two methods were used to determine the theoretical validity of the SFZ: the “Successes” scale included in the Man at Work questionnaire by A. Matczak et al. (2009) and the “Conscientiousness” and “Openness” scales of the NEO-PI-R questionnaire by P.T Costa and R.R. McCrae (1992). These two dimensions were used because they had the highest correlations in the group of managers, “Conscientiousness” positively correlated with effectiveness at work (r = .22), and “Openness” (r = .25) (McCrae, Costa, 2005).

The “Successes” scale is used to diagnose the source of control over positive reinforcements at work – successes. Respondents who score high on this scale believe that the promotion, awards and praise they receive at work are either the result of the positive decisions of other people, or (low scores) the result of their competencies, conscientiousness and commitment to work (Matczak et al., 2009).

The “Conscientiousness” scale, which is part of the NEO-PI-R questionnaire by Costa and McCrae (1992; Siuta, 2006), examines personality and those specific manifestations of it that are associated with such features as: competence, the tendency to order, dutifulness, striving for achievement, self-discipline and prudence.

The “Openness” scale, which is part of the NEO-PI-R questionnaire, examines personality and those manifestations that are related to cognitive curiosity, internal and external experiences, tolerance and openness to emotions and other people.

The correlation between SFZ and the results obtained using the “Successes” scale in the group of managers amounted to .81, with the assumed significance level of p = .05. The correlation between SFZ and the results obtained using the “Conscientiousness” scale was .68 with the assumed significance level of p = .05. The correlation between SFZ and the results obtained using the “Openness” scale was .85 with the assumed significance level of p = .05. The obtained correlation values confirm the high convergent validity of the constructed Professional Functioning Scale (SFZ).

When estimating the scale’s reliability, its stability and internal consistency were examined. The reliability of the SFZ for senior employees was assessed based on two surveys of employees of different levels, ages, genders and industries (180 people in total) at intervals of three and six months. Satisfactory results were obtained.

It is worth mentioning the results of research conducted using SFZ, as they are extremely interesting and inspiring. For example, it turned out that men use an authoritarian style more often than women. No gender differences were found in the case of liberal and participative styles (cf. Wilk, 2019). Another study shows that the use of professional functioning styles (authoritarian andliberal) is associated with a higher level of burnout compared to people who do not use any of the styles. Moreover, liberal style may predict overall burnout (Petruk, 2020). In Dąbrowska’s (2022) research, it turned out that functioning styles differentiate managers in terms of the hierarchy of values.

ACL Adjective Check List by Harrison G. Gough and Alfred B. Heilbrun

The ACL by Harrison G. Gough and Alfred B. Heilbrun is a tool designed to test various 37 dimensions of human personality, which fall into 5 areas. This method has been described many times in world and Polish literature and is standardized in Poland (Gough, Heilbrun, 2012; Martowska, 2012; Mróz, 2011, 2015).

The Personality-Axiological Model (MOA) was developed based on confirmatory and exploratory analysis of research results of senior employees using the ACL and path analysis. The model includes the dimensions of competence, relationship and autonomy, which include factors and features of the structure of needs, achievements, adaptation and values (Mróz, 2011, 2016).

• “Competencies reflect knowledge and the need and ability to influence the course of events, the need for effort and refer to the effects of actions taken.
• Relationships reflect the needs and skills of contacting people, caring for them, the need for social bonds, taking into account the internalized system of values and social adaptation.
• Autonomy reflects the need and ability to act with a sense of freedom and choice, self-confidence, meeting challenges, cognitive boldness and range of interests” (Mróz, 2015, p. 96).

It is worth mentioning the scales of the ACL, which were included in the path model of confirmatory analysis in the given dimensions.:

• Competencies: A – Adult; Ord – the need for order; End – the need for endurance; AC – Adapted Child; Mls – Leadership skills scale; A-4 – low originality, high intellect; Ah – the need for achievement; NP – Nurturing parent; A-1 – high originality, low intellect; Int – the need to understand one’s behavior or the behavior of others; Suc – the need for acceptance; A-2 – high originality, high intellect.
• Relationships: A-3 – low originality, low intellect; Het – sexual need; Nur – the need to be cared for; Aff – the need for affiliation; Fem – femininity scale; CP – Critical Parent; Fav – the number of selected adjectives that positively characterize the examined person; P-Adj – personal adjustment.
• Autonomy: Exh – the need for mental exhibitionism; FC – Free Child; Aba – the need to humiliate oneself; Def – the need to submit; S-Cn – self-control; Car – the need for autonomy; S-Cfd – self-confidence; Agg – the need for aggression; Home – the need for domination; Cha – the need for variability in response; CPS – creative personality scale (Mróz, 2016).

According to the literature on the subject and multiple studies, the group of leaders is characterized by significant specificity, in which, among other things, the areas discussed are based on different strengths of personality predictors and organizational conditions (Kożusznik, 2002; Kasprzak, 2012, 2023; Peplińska, Połomski, Bajko, 2015; Baka, 2017; Kasprzak, Michalak, 2018; Lipińska-Grobelny, 2021).

Characteristics of the respondents

The group of respondents consisted of employees in managerial positions, women and men, aged 26 to 62, who represented three industries: production, commerce and services. The mean age for women is M = 37.8,SD = 9.93, for men it is M = 38.9,SD = 8.72. Research work was carried out in companies in the following voivodeships: Lower Silesia, Opole and Silesia; part of the results of Wilk (2019) were used, which increased the number of respondents (research using the same methods, in analogous voivodeships). The respondents were people in managerial positions in limited liability companies and joint-stock companies. The purpose and course of the research were explained to the respondents, and they were also informed about the voluntary and anonymous nature of the study. Each person received a set of tests with an attached data sheet. The content of the datasheet included information about gender, age, education, industry, position, profession and additional training. In total, 243 people took part in the study and were admitted to the analyses. 230 results, the rest did not meet the requirements (incomplete tests).

The Student’s t-test, which is a parametric test, was used, previously obtaining a normal distribution in the analyses in each group. Detailed characteristics of the study group are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Characteristics of the study group in terms of sociodemographic variables

The group of respondents consisted of 230 people in managerial positions, of which 108 were women and 122 were men. The division of respondents by industry is as follows: production industry 67 people, commerce industry 85 people and service industry 78 people. Middle-aged people (36–45 years old) accounted for 40 percent. After collecting the results, the data were entered into the program and subjected to statistical analysis. Statistical analyses were performed using the PS IMAGO PRO 8.0 program; the version includes the IBM SPSS Statistics 28 component.

Findings

Below are the results related to testing hypotheses, here related to differences between individual styles of professional functioning and gender.

Table 1. Differences in professional functioning styles between a group of women (N= 108) and a group of men (N= 122) in managerial positions. Mean (M), standard deviation (SD), t-value, significance level of differences p

From the above analysis, it can be concluded that there are gender differences within the authoritarian style of functioning (t = –4.127). The surveyed male managers demonstrated a significantly greater intensity of the authoritarian style than the surveyed female managers. However, in the case of the participative style (t = .610) and liberal style (t = .567), there were no significant differences between the studied groups due to gender, nor did social approval have a differentiating role. This latter property means that this group can be treated as homogeneous in terms of the tendency to present themselves in a favorable light. These results do not confirm the hypothesis (H1) about the predominance of the participative style in women.

Pearson’s r correlations were also made between management styles and personality dimensions, as presented in the table below.

Table 2. Pearson’s r correlations between professional functioning styles and personality dimensions

Based on the analysis performed, it can be concluded that there is a significant, positive correlation between the participative style and competencies (r=.453) and between the authoritarian style and the need for achievements (r= .448).

In light of the above, it was decided to check which personality variables show relationships with professional functioning styles; for this purpose, forward stepwise regression was performed (Francuz, Mackiewicz, 2005). The results obtained for the authoritarian style in the group of managers are presented in the table below.

Table 3. The share of personality variables in explaining the authoritarian style of professional functioning in a group of managers

The linear combination of independent and organizational variable scores explains 49% of the variance in authoritarian style scores. The strength of the relationship between personality and organizational variables and the authoritarian style is R = .69. In the regression equation, five independent variables turned out to be significant for predicting the dependent variable (authoritarian style).

At the level of authoritarian style, the highest predictions were shown by: Self-confidence (–S-Cfd), Need for achievements (+Ach), Need for domination (+Dom), Counseling readiness (–Crs) and Leadership skills scale (–Mls). The emphasis placed on the need for achievement and dominance, combined with negative self-confidence, may create opportunities for violent, destructive and discouraging behavior among subordinates. There is a question as to whether managers with this management style have the predisposition to be effective leaders. They probably lack self-confidence and may be afraid of being compared to other managers.

The results for the liberal style in the group of managers are presented below.

Table 4. The share of personality variables in explaining the liberal style of professional functioning in a group of managers

The linear combination of independent and organizational variable scores explains 28% of the variance in liberal style scores. The strength of the relationship between personality and organizational variables and the liberal style is R = .52. In the regression equation, three independent variables turned out to be significant for predicting the dependent variable (liberal style).

At the level of liberal style, the highest predictions were shown by: the Need for order (–Ord), Competencies (–K) and the Masculinity scale (+Mas). The liberal style is characterized by passivity in management, so the result obtained by this group is not surprising with negative indicators of the Need for Order (–Ord) and Competences (–K). They correspond to the image of reckless people, unable to delay gratification, prone to fantasy and unambitious. The masculinity scale may explain an attempt to present oneself in a better light, giving the impression of solidity and self-confidence. These results indicate competence gaps and professional functioning, not only in a managerial role. These people may try to mask their shortcomings with humor, understanding or impressing.

The results for the participative style in the group of managers are presented below.

Table 5. The contribution of personality variables in explaining the style of participativeprofessional functioning in a group of managers

The linear combination of independent and organizational variable scores explains 47% of the variance in participative style scores. The strength of the relationship between personality and organizational variables and the participative style is R = .64. In the regression equation, seven independent variables turned out to be significant in predicting the dependent variable (participative style).

At the level of participative style, the highest predictions were shown by: Self-control (+S-Cn), Need for achievements (–Ach), Need for compassion (+Nur), Need for order (+Ord), Need for response change (–Cha), Ideal self scale (+Iss), Sexual need (–Het). The results of respondents functioning in a participative style show that the most effective management involves responsibility, taking people and tasks seriously, diligence and perseverance. People who use the participative style are aware of what they are doing, value their autonomy, show interest in their co-workers, and value the need for compassion, which they believe is more important than various types of manipulation (negative correlation at the level of sexual need). They are aware of the role of feedback, they can admit mistakes, they have a plan for what they do and they know how to work and manage, as evidenced by the need for order. Participative managers, seeing their positive effects, do not want to change anything (Cha–). What is worth emphasizing is that the effects of this management style may be the cause of their self-esteem (Iss). The need for achievement is not an end in itself, it does not dominate, it does not introduce toxic competition, and therefore motivates others to work more effectively.

The above results confirmed the second hypothesis (H2) indicating a strong relationship between selected personality traits (including the need for dominance, the need for achievements, competencies) with the preferred styles of professional functioning among employees in managerial positions.

Discussion of the results and conclusions

The results obtained showed that there are gender differences within the authoritarian management style. The surveyed male managers showed significantly greater intensity of the authoritarian style than the surveyed female managers (cf. Wilk, 2019).

Assumptions about the relationship between a higher intensity of the need for achievement and an autocratic management style were also reflected in these results. Focusing on achievements often results in omitting the human aspect, e.g. understanding, which is so sought after in managers by subordinates (Trempała, Olejnik, 2011; Kasprzak, 2012; Kasprzak, Michalak, 2018). In the works of the latter author, the career-oriented style (low sense of closeness to others, high autonomy) is associated with the motives of striving for achievements and restrictive behavior. Based on the results obtained, it could be concluded that people functioning in an authoritarian style were characterized by a strong need for achievement and, what is important and different from participative people, a high need for domination. It would be worth assessing in the future whether these behaviors may be associated with some type of neuroticism.

The role of an appropriate level of interpersonal contact and respect for people also neutralizes pathological behaviors in the organization that may threaten it, such as mobbing, the “rat race”, or other workaholic tendencies in selected groups of subordinates (Hornowska, Paluchowski, 2007; Terelak, 2007; Mróz, 2011; Baka, 2017; Mróz, Chudzicka-Czupała, Kuśpit, 2017). Therefore, the participative style can be considered as one that can be treated as a kind of antidote to the above harmful managerial behaviors.

The participative style has also become a necessity nowadays due to its high effectiveness. The results obtained showed the source of such behavior of managers: high self-awareness, autonomy, interest in co-workers, the need for compassion, the appropriate setting of requirements and showing prospects for success. All this means that such bosses can be trusted because employees can feel like subjects and not objects in the company.

In light of research, it is believed that managers who have already achieved a certain status that is satisfactory for them want to take care of the sphere of interpersonal relations, as this may facilitate greater identification with the company (Wojciszke, 2010; Trempała, Olejnik, 2011; Kasprzak, Michalak, 2018). This increases the subjective quality of life and is also a health-promoting trend.

This research confirmed the usefulness of the method used to differentiate styles of functioning at work. It is worth using well-verified methods that accurately reflect the assumptions of the theoretical concepts on which they were created. The SFZ Professional Functioning Scale used in this article met the expectations placed on it.

The studied group is characterized by a lack of tendency to present themselves in a favorable light. Similar results were achieved by Zalewska (2006) and Dąbrowska (2022).

If we want well-working, motivated employees, the research results have shown that when appointing managerial positions, personality factors should be treated very seriously and the indication of a participative style should be optimal. These indicators are inextricably responsible for both the atmosphere of the workplace and the harmonious professional development of employees.

Translated by Katarzyna Jenek

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